The Alphabet
| Letter | Sounds Like | Examples | Phonetic Symbol |
| Aa | "aey" "ahh" "ae" | hay (hay) auto (ah-toh) bat (bayt) |
/eɪ/ /ɑː/ /æ/
|
| Bb | "buh" | baby (bae-bee) | /b/ |
| Cc | "kuh" "suh" | case (kay'se) cell (sehl) | /k/ /s/ |
| Dd | "duh" | deep (deep) | /d/ |
| Ee | "eh" "eee" | empty (emp-tee) sea (see) | /e/ /iː/ |
| Ff | "fff" | five (feyev) | /f/ |
| Gg | "guh" "juh" | go (goh) gin (jin) | /g/ /dʒ/ |
| Hh | "huh" | hello (he-lo) | /h/ |
| Ii | "ah-ee" "i" | I (eye), five (feyev) sit (sit) |
/ɑɪ/ /ɪ/
|
| Jj | "juh" | jump (juhmp) | /dʒ/ |
| Kk | "kuh" | walk (wak) | /k/ |
| Ll | "luh" | like (leyek) | /l/ |
| Mm | "Mm" | mouse (mow'se) | /m/ |
| Nn | "Nn" | no (noh) | /n/ |
| Oo | "oh" "ah" | go (goh) pot (paht) |
/əʊ/ /ɒ/
|
| Pp | "puh" | piece (pee'se) | /p/ |
| | "kwah" | quiet (kweye-it) | /kw/ |
| Rr | "aher" "Rr" | part (pahrt) rabbit (rab-it) | /ɑːr/ /r/ |
| Ss | "Ss" | save (sayv) | /s/ |
| Tt | "tuh" | tall (tahl) | /t/ |
| Uu | "ouh" "uh" | put (puht) but (buht), up (uhp) |
/ʊ/ /ʌ/
|
| Vv | "vuh" | visa (vee-sa) | /v/ |
| Ww | "wuh" | why (wheye), wait (wayt) | /w/ |
| Xx | "ehks" | excite (ek-seyet) | /eks/ |
| Yy | "yuh" | young (yuhng) | /j/ |
| Zz | "zzz" | zoo (zoo), rose (rohz) | /z/ |
Diphthongs and Consonant Clusters
Diphthongs are the combination of two or more vowel sounds. Consonant clusters are when two different consonants are next to each other and create a new sound. The following are examples of Diphthongs and Consonant Clusters:
| Letter Combinations | Sounds Like | Examples | Phonetic Symbol |
| ough, ow, ou | "ow" | bough, how, pout | /aʊ/ |
| oy | "oi" | boy, hoy | /ɔɪ/ |
| eau, ue, ew | "eew" | beauty, hue, pew, dew | /juː/ |
| th, the | "dhh" (voiced) | this, breathe, father | /ð/ |
| g, j, dge | "juh" (voiced) | gin, joy, edge | /dʒ/ |
| ng, ing | "ng" | ringer, sing, sink | /ŋ/ |
| th | "thh" | thing, teeth | /θ/ |
| sh, ti, ss | "shhh" | she, emotion, leash , session | /ʃ/ |
| ch | "Chuh" | chair, teach | /tʃ/ |
| si | "shj" (voiced) | vision | /ʒ/ |
The Conjunction ‘But’
Conjunctions are words that join clauses in a sentence, making two or three sentences one.
Examples of conjunctions are: but, because, and and.
- Use "but" as a conjunction to show a contrast or exception.
To contrast is to show the differences between something or someone.
Example sentences using "but" as contrast:
She is poor, but she is happy.
He is a doctor, but he wants to be a teacher.
They are rich, but they live in a small house.
Ireland is beautiful, but it rains too much.
An exception is something or someone that is not included.
Example sentences using "but" as exception:
Everybody but Tom likes the school.
I hate every cat but mine.
You can choose this one or that one, but not both.
I don't eat meat but I eat fish.
The Conjunction 'Because'
The conjunction "because" is used to show why something has happened.
I went to bed, (why?) because I was tired.
"Because" shows cause or reason.
Example sentences:
I went to bed because I was tired.
McDonalds is very popular because it is cheap.
He likes to run because it is good exercise.
They study English because it is a global language.
"Because" can also be used at the beginning of sentences. To do this the second clause (or last part of the sentence) must be switched to the beginning. Doing this does not change the meaning.
Examples of sentences beginning with "because:"
Because I was tired, I went to bed.
Because it is cheap, McDonalds is very popular.
Because it is good exercise, he likes to run.
Because it is a global language, they study English.
The Conjunction ‘And’
The conjunction "and" is often used to connect words, phrases or clauses.
This is my mother. This is my father. = This is my mother and my father.
Examples using "and" to connect clauses:
This is my mother and my father.
I have a sister and a brother.
She is wearing jeans and a jacket.
"And" can also say that the event in the first clause comes before the event of the second.
Sally put on her hat (1st action) and went to school (2nd action).
Examples using "and" to list or show order of events:
The dog jumped up on the table and ate the chicken.
He takes the 10 o'clock bus and goes downtown.
She opened her book, took out her pen and began her homework.
Other uses for "And"
We also use "and" when we are listing adjectives or nouns. "And" goes before the last adjective or noun. There isn't a comma before "and" when listing things, only when separating nouns or adjectives.
Examples:
The tree is tall and green.
The woman is rich and old.
The truck is old, yellow and big.
I like cats, dogs, birds and small animals.
Introduction to Personal Pronouns (I, She, He, and It)
Personal Pronouns: Use personal pronouns to show who you are talking about. Use these when they are the subject of a sentence to replace a person or persons name(s). There are seven personal pronouns; I, she, he, it, you, we, and they.
I (the speaker, first-person singular)
"I" is used to refer to yourself when you are speaking. It is called the first-person singular. 'First-person' means referring to yourself. Singular means only one person is being indicated.
Example: I am Joe.
She (female, third-person singular)
"She" is used to refer to a female that is not being spoken to directly, a third-person. This one female is being spoken about.
Example: She is Sally.
He (male, third-person singular)
"He" is used to refer to a male that is not being spoken to directly, a third-person. This one male is being spoken about.
Example: He is Joe.
It (object/thing, third-person singular)
"It" is used to refer to an animal or thing, the object that is being spoken about.
Example: It is dog.
Introduction to Personal Pronouns (I, She, He, and It)
Personal Pronouns: Use personal pronouns to show who you are talking about. Use these when they are the subject of a sentence to replace a person or persons name(s). There are seven personal pronouns; I, she, he, it, you, we, and they.
I (the speaker, first-person singular)
"I" is used to refer to yourself when you are speaking. It is called the first-person singular. 'First-person' means referring to yourself. Singular means only one person is being indicated.
Example: I am Joe.
She (female, third-person singular)
"She" is used to refer to a female that is not being spoken to directly, a third-person. This one female is being spoken about.
Example: She is Sally.
He (male, third-person singular)
"He" is used to refer to a male that is not being spoken to directly, a third-person. This one male is being spoken about.
Example: He is Joe.
It (object/thing, third-person singular)
"It" is used to refer to an animal or thing, the object that is being spoken about.
Example: It is dog.
The 'To Be' Verb - Present Tense
The verb "to be" is conjugated differently depending on the subject of the sentence.
There are three forms of the verb: is, am, and are.
| Personal Pronoun (Subject) | Verb Form |
| I | am |
| He/ She/ It | is |
| They/ We/ You | are |
Examples:
First-person singular
I am Joe.
I am tall.
Third-person singular
He is tall.
She is short.
It is old.
Second-person singular and plural
You are old.
You are rich.
Third-person plural
They are poor.
They are rich.
First-person plural
We are thin.
We are tall.
Nouns and Adjectives
Introduction to Nouns and Adjectives
Nouns are words that are people, places, things or ideas.
Examples of nouns: building, boy, girl, purse, wallet, tree, flower, house, woman, man, door, car, coin, doctor...
Nouns that name a specific person, place or thing are called proper nouns.
Examples of proper nouns: David, Tokyo, Queen Marguerite, Middle East, Jerusalem, Malaysia, God, Spanish, Buddhism, the Republican Party...
Nouns can either be countable or uncountable.
A countable noun is a noun that can be counted, meaning it becomes plural.
Examples of countable nouns: cars, buildings, boys, girls, purse, wallet, woman, men, child, etc
An uncountable noun is a noun that cannot be counted and is in singular form, but is composed of more than one individual person or item.
Examples of uncountable nouns: air, water, juice, crowd, class, team, blood, traffic etc
To make uncountable nouns plural add a quantifier. Quantifiers are words that go before nouns and modify them. They tell how many or how much.
Examples of quantifiers: a few, some, a little, no, a lot of
Adjectives are words that describe nouns. Common adjectives are colors and size. Adjectives are words that modify nouns and pronouns. To modify means to change a little. Adjectives change pronouns and nouns by telling more about them. Telling more about a pronoun or noun makes sentences more interesting to read.
Examples of adjectives: tall, short, young, old, fat, thin, purple, blue, gold, silver, orange, brown, yellow, black, white, green.
Nouns and Adjectives: Word Order
Word order: The most common order of words in English is:
1) subject -> 2) verb -> 3) object (S + V + O)
Typically subjects are nouns. The subject is the main idea of the sentence. It is what the sentence is about. It is the do-er or be-er.
The verb is the action that the main subject is doing or being.
The object is the receiver of the action or follows the verb telling something about the subject.
Examples of S + V + O:
The Man (subject) drives (verb) his car (object)
The girls go to school.
The dog has fleas.
Another common example of S+V+O is:
Noun + verb "to be" + adjective
Examples:
The building is silver.
The woman is fat.
The coin is gold.
The door is blue.
The boy is short.
Remember! If the noun is plural (more than one) the verb has to be changed (conjugated). Adjectives are not conjugated and do not change.
Examples:
The purses are white.
The trees are yellow.
The cars are red.
The girls are rich.
Negative Forms of ‘To Be’
Negative Forms of ‘To Be’
Use the negative of "to be" to describe what something doesn't look like or to answer negatively to a yes/no question. To make a sentence negative, put the word "not" after the verb "to be."
Examples:
I am not a student.
She is not sad.
They are not Japanese.
When describing what something doesn't look like use the following: Noun + verb "to be" + not + adjective
Examples:
The tree is not yellow.
The man is not fat.
The coin is not silver.
We are not American.
Even when the verb "to be" changes because the subject is now plural, the word order does not.
Examples:
The trees are not yellow.
The houses are not green.
They are not here.
Examples of negative answers to questions:
Are the girls poor? No, the girls are not poor.
Are you American? No, we are not American.
Is the coin silver? No, the coin is not silver.
Are you a student? No, I am not a student.
Contractions
"Not" can be shortened (contracted) when placed next to the verb "to be." When combined together, "is not" and "are not" turn into "isn't" and "aren't." These contractions are commonly used in speech.
Examples:
The man is not fat = The man isn't fat.
The coin is not silver = The coin isn't silver.
The girls are not poor = The girls aren't poor.
The houses are not green = The houses aren't green
Contraction (shortening) can also happen with the verb and the subject of the sentence. Note: When using the first person "I am" it is often shortened to "I'm" in both negative and positive sentences.
Examples:
We are not American = We're not American.
I am not happy = I'm not happy.
The man is not fat = The man's not fat.
The coin is not silver = The coin's not silver.
Note: "Are" cannot be contracted unless one of the following pronouns is used: "we," "they," or "you."
Examples:
The girls are not poor = The girls aren't poor. NOT The girls're not poor.
The coins are not silver = The coins aren't silver. NOT The coins're not silver.
The exception is when you are using the plural personal pronouns "we," "they," or "you."
Examples:
We're not on vacation.
They're not rich.
You're not my friends.
Plurals and Demonstratives
Introduction to Plurals
Typically when making something plural (to show that there is more than one) add an "s" to the end of the noun.
Examples of plural words that end in "s":
Trees, boys, girls, houses, coins, trucks, cars, flowers, wallets
Words that end in "ch," "x," "s" or s-like sounds end in "es" for the plural.
Examples of plural words ending in "es":
witch - witches
fox - foxes
box - boxes
kiss - kisses
bus - buses
Some nouns are "irregular" and are made plural by changing or adding another part of the word. The most common of these is man, woman and child. To make man and woman plural substitute the "a" for an "e." To make child plural you add "ren" to the end.
Examples
The men are tall.
The women are old.
The children are young.
Remember never to add an "s" to the end of men, women or children to make the words plural. Add an "s" only when showing possession.
Demonstratives: ‘This’, ‘These’, ‘Those’ and ‘That’
Sometimes special words are used to show which noun is being talked about. These words are called demonstratives. This, that, these and those are demonstratives.
"This" and "that" are used to talk about a single noun.
"These" and "those" are used to talk about plural nouns.
"This" and "these" are used to talk about nouns that are close to you.
"That" and "those" are used to talk about nouns that are far from you.
Examples
This is a flower. (The flower is close to me)
That is a flower. (The flower is far from me)
These are flowers. (There are many flowers and they are close)
Those are flowers. (There are many flowers and they are far from me)
Introduction to Plurals
Typically when making something plural (to show that there is more than one) add an "s" to the end of the noun.
Examples of plural words that end in "s":
Trees, boys, girls, houses, coins, trucks, cars, flowers, wallets
Words that end in "ch," "x," "s" or s-like sounds end in "es" for the plural.
Examples of plural words ending in "es":
witch - witches
fox - foxes
box - boxes
kiss - kisses
bus - buses
Some nouns are "irregular" and are made plural by changing or adding another part of the word. The most common of these is man, woman and child. To make man and woman plural substitute the "a" for an "e." To make child plural you add "ren" to the end.
Examples
The men are tall.
The women are old.
The children are young.
Remember never to add an "s" to the end of men, women or children to make the words plural. Add an "s" only when showing possession.
Demonstratives: ‘This’, ‘These’, ‘Those’ and ‘That’
Sometimes special words are used to show which noun is being talked about. These words are called demonstratives. This, that, these and those are demonstratives.
"This" and "that" are used to talk about a single noun.
"These" and "those" are used to talk about plural nouns.
"This" and "these" are used to talk about nouns that are close to you.
"That" and "those" are used to talk about nouns that are far from you.
Examples
This is a flower. (The flower is close to me)
That is a flower. (The flower is far from me)
These are flowers. (There are many flowers and they are close)
Those are flowers. (There are many flowers and they are far from me)
